2nd Year 1st Sem. Study

Configuration of Personal Computer

2009-09-03T12:34:00.000-07:00

Less Expensive Computer			Expensive Computer
Basic Configuration	Product Description	Price	Basic Configuration	Product Description	Price
Processor	Intel Dual Core 2.6 GHz	6000/=	Processor	Intel Core 2 Duo 2.8 GHz	8800/=
Mother Board	AT (Baby)	4500/=	Mother Board	ATX	8700/=
RAM	2 GB DDR-2	1750/=	RAM	2 GB DDR – 3	3700/=
Hard Disk Drive	250 GB SATA	3000/=	Hard Disk Drive	1000 GB ATA	8200/=
Monitor	Samsung 17” CRT	5300/=	Monitor	Samsung 19” LCD	10300/=
Casing	Thermal	1800/=	Casing	Thermal	1800/=
Key Board	Standard	300/=	Key Board	Standard	300/=
Mouse	Optical	300/=	Mouse	Optical	300/=
DVD RW/Combo	Sony DRU – 500A DVD RW	2200/=	DVD RW/Combo	Sony DRX – 500 ULX DVD RW	11300/=
Speaker	Creative (2 way speaker)	1700/=	Speaker	Creative (3 way speaker)	3700/=
UPS	Off line (Samsung)	10300/=	UPS	Line interactive (Sony)	19000/=
Total		37150/=	Total		76100/=

Compare Two Computers

Less Expensive Computer		Expensive Computer
Subject	Description	Subject	Description
Processor	Dual Core has 2 processors. It’s a 32 bit processor & the cache memory is 2 MB.	Processor	Core 2 Duo is 64 bit processor & the cache memory is 4 MB.
Mother Board	There are different variations in AT design. The Baby AT design mother board can usually fit inside a Baby AT case or full AT case.	Mother Board	ATX design uses a different power supply connector and ATX case cools internal components much more efficiently then predecessor.
Graphics Card	It is attached with mother board. PCI cards can access the memory available on the actual card.	Graphics Card	It is attached with mother board. AGP cards can access the system memory to help with complex operations.
RAM	DDR – 2 RAM reduce heat and consumption at higher speeds.	RAM	DDR – 3 RAM runs at higher clock speed as mentioned.
DVD RW/Combo	Sony DRU – 500 A Data transfer rate: 33.3 mb/s MAX Random access time: 160 ms (CD-ROM) 200ms (DVD-ROM) Buffer memory: 8MB	DVD RW/Combo	Sony DRX – 500 ULX Data transfer rate: 480 mb/s MAX Random access time: 160 ms (CD-ROM) 200ms (DVD-ROM) Buffer memory: 8MB
Hard Disk Drive	SATA = Serial ATA Smaller connections & higher data speeds.	Hard Disk Drive	ATA = Advanced Technology Attachment and has speeds of up to 133 Mbps, has a 40 pin connector.
UPS	“Offline” UPS are connected via an electrical relay. In normal operation, the electrical voltage is used to recharge the batteries.	UPS	“Line Interactive” are part of hybrid technology. Indeed, the line connected in parallel via relay but has a micro-processor monitoring the voltage continuously.

Matrix Application

2009-07-19T11:27:00.000-07:00

Quiz-3

Following is the input-output table:

	Agriculture(Sale)	Industry(Sale)	Final Demand
Agriculture(Purchase)	3	4	3
Industry(Purchase)	6	10	4

· Find the disposition of sectors’ outputs.

· Find the transaction matrix.

· Find the direct requirement matrix(input-output co-efficient matrix)

· Find the direct and indirect requirement matrix(input output co-efficient matrix)

· What will be the gross production if the demand of the agriculture and industry sector were 8 and 12 respectively?

Solution:

a. Disposition of output of the sectors’ and final output

Total Input Output Table

	Agriculture(Sale)	Industry(Sale)	Final Demand	Total sales
Agriculture(Purchase)	3	4	3	10
Industry(Purchase)	6	10	4	20
Consumer	1	6
Total Sales	10	20

Interpretation:

Out of the production of 10 of Agriculture Sector:

Agriculture Consumes 3 Units.

Industry Consumes 6 Units.

Consumer Consume 1 Unit.

Out of the Production of 20 of Industry:

Agriculture Consumes 4 units.

Industry consumes 10 units.

Consumer consumes 6 units.

B. Inter Sectoral Input and Output Transaction Matrix

Inter sectoral Input and Output Transaction Table

	Agriculture(Sale)	Industry(Sale)
Agriculture(Purchase)	3	4
Industry(Purchase)	6	10

Inter sectoral Input and Output Transaction Matrix

A =

3 4

6 10

Interpretation- Agriculture Sector

Agriculture Sector sale to Agriculture Sector: 3 units

Agriculture Sector sale to Industry Sector: 6 Units

Interpretation – Industry Sector

Industry Sector Sale to Industry Sector: 10 units

Industry Sector sale to Agriculture sector: 4 units.

C. Inter Sectoral Input and Output Co-efficient

Inter Sectoral Input and Output Co-efficient Table

(Dividing column 1 by 10 and column 2 by 20)

	Agriculture(Sale)	Industry(Sale)
Agriculture(Purchase)	0.3	0.2
Industry(Purchase)	0.6	0.5
Consumer	0.1	0.6

Interpretation – Agriculture Sector

Out of 1 unit total sale (Gross sale): Agriculture sale to Agriculture: 0.3, Agriculture sale to Industry: 0.6,

Interpretation – Industry Sector

Out of 1 unit total sale (Gross sale): Industry sale to Industry: 0.5, Industry sale to Agriculture: 0.2,

D. Sectoral direct output (input-output co-efficient matrix)

Table of Input-Output Coefficient

	Agriculture(Sale)	Industry(Sale)
Agriculture(Purchase)	0.3	0.2
Industry(Purchase)	0.6	0.5

Input-Output Coefficient Matrix

A =

0.3 0.2 0.6 0.5

Interpretation:

Out of every 1 unit of gross output of agriculture sector 0.3 are used by the agriculture sector and 0.4 units by industry.

Out of every 1 unit of gross output industry sector 0.2 are used by the industry sector and 0.5 units by agriculture sector.

D. Direct and indirect output matrix (Input-output coefficient matrix)

Formula:

Intersectoral coefficient x Gross Production + Final output = Gross Output

[Matrix of intersectoral coefficients] x [Matrix of Gross Production] + [Matrix of Final Output] = [Matrix of Gross Production]

Where:

A: Matrix of intersectoral coefficients

X: Matrix of Gross Production

D: Matrix of Final Output

AX + D = X

1 0

0 1

If D =

AX + 1 = X

ð AX –X = -1

ð X – XA = 1

ð X(1-A) = 1

ð X = (1- A)^-1

1 0

0 1

0.3 0.2 0.7 0.2

Now, (1 – A ) = =

0.6 0.5 0.6 0.5

Now, Cofactor Matrix of (1 – A )

0.5 0.6

0.2 0.7

Hence, Adjoin matrix of ( 1 – A )

0.5 0.2

0.6 0.7

Now, Determinants of ( 1 – A )

D = {0.35 – 0.12} = .23

Hence, Inverse Matrix of (1 – A )^-1= ------ x [Adjoin Matrix]

0.5 0.2

0.23

=----- x

0.6 0.7

2.17 0.87

2.61 3.04

If Industry and Agriculture Sector are 8 and 12 Respectively-

2.17 0.87 8

Then the matrix = X

2.61 3.04 12

27.8

57.36

Interpretation:

If agriculture and Industry factor are 8 and 12 Respectively

Then Gross Output of Agriculture 27.8 units

Gross Output of Industry 57.36 units

Business Communication Assignment

2009-07-17T10:44:00.000-07:00

Effective Communication Makes Business Organization Successful__

William Scott said, “Business communication is the transmission and accurate imitation of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of accomplishing organizational goals.”

But this communication should be effective, because only the effective communication can make a business organization successful. Communication can be upward, downward, lateral or diagonal, but it is the communicator who has to find out the best one which suits best the organization. Effective communication includes some important parts which make the communication effective, these are….

Ø Communication network;

Ø Communication Media;

Ø Medium;

Ø Good business writing;

Communication Network:

There are mainly two types of communication network, which are…

I. Formal Communication;

II. Informal Communication;

I. Formal Communication:

Formal communications mainly happen officially, it should be structured & there is always a chain of command in formal communication as it is used officially. Any type of leadership is granted in formal communication. Here communication can be upward, downward, lateral & diagonal.

II. Informal Communication:

Informal communication mainly used for communicate with business friend or employees; so it may not be structured & there is no chain of command in informal communication. The informal communication is used specially in democratic & upward communication; it’s also known as open door communication. The main disadvantage or problem of this sort of communication is grapevine that means distortion of original message. For these types of problem there need some sort of motivational activities.

Now, for make the business organization successful, first the communicator or the boss should choose the way of the communication network. First of all the boss should analyze the goal or the main objective of the organization, and then analyze that which types of communication network suits the organization best. And if the boss can choose the perfect communication network for the organization, then it would be easier for all of the employees and workers to communicate with each other which can make a business organization successful.

Communication Media:

Media of communication means, how to communicate or the way to communicate, there are mainly two way or media of communication…

I. Verbal;

a) Oral;

b) Electronic;

c) Written communication;

II. Non-Verbal;

a) Physical gesture;

b) Silent;

Communication

Verbal Non-Verbal

Oral Electronic Written Physical gesture Silent

Figure: Media of Communication;

There are some sorts of noise and barrier problems in communication network, which can distort the massage. If the communicator overcome the barriers then the communication would be effective which can help to make the business organization successful.

Medium:

Medium also plays an important role in effective communication; medium means by which something is accomplished or channel of communication.

Medium is used specially in verbal communication. Under the verbal communication, in oral communication the communicator used to talk to make others understand; in electronic communication we use telephone, fax or e-mail for performing the communication activities; and in written communication we use different types of letter or application or memo etc to do communication. Choosing the best medium can make the communication effective.

Good business writing:

Good business writing is one of the important parts of effective communication. All types of written communication mostly depend on the good business writing; there are some rules or steps in good business writing, those are…..

I. Remember ABC;

II. Be courteous;

III. Write naturally;

IV. Use KISS principle;

V. Modern technology;

VI. Include essentials;

VII. Be consistent;

VIII. Use active voice;

IX. Compose CLEAR communication;

I. Remember ABC:

ü A – Accurate; (Need proof copy and information)

ü B – Brief; (Do not talk too much, explanation is important)

ü C – Clear;

II. Be courteous:

ü Respond very quickly;

ü We have to feel the position of reader, what receiver think after reading the message;

ü Use appropriate tone; (Think about position, designation, organization, type, age, relation etc)

III. Write naturally:

ü Use short phrase;

IV. Use KISS principle:

ü KISS – Keep it short and simple; (Avoid complex words & phrase)

V. Modern technology:

ü Be smart in writing;

VI. Include essentials:

ü All essential parts of the letter or application should be included;

VII. Be consistent:

ü Should be coherent with the main topic;

VIII. Use active voice:

ü Try to avoid passive voice or minimize the use of passive voice;

IX. Compose CLEAR communication:

ü C – Clear;

ü L – Logical;

ü E – Emphatic;

ü A – Accurate;

ü R – Right;

These parts or steps can make the business writing perfect; if these can be used in business writing properly then the reader would be convinced through reading the letter or application, which can be beneficial for effective communication as well as to make the business organization successful.

Good writing needs adaption & construction of clear sentences & paragraph__

Good writing always needs adaption, and why we need adapt before writing is described below……

1. Visualizing the reader:

ü To know early, about readers attitude, mental frame, education level etc;

ü We try to create mental picture to know about attitude, mental frame, education level etc of the reader. For knowing this we need to adopt first;

2. Techniques of adaption:

ü Writing according to the level of people. Writer must know communication channel (upward, downward, diagonal and lateral); and corporate culture of the firm;

3. Adapting to multiple readers:

ü If it happened for different level of educated people then we have to write down to the lowest level;

ü For different level of people we have to write down in the lowest level to minimize the problem;

4. Governing role of adoption:

ü Simplicity;

ü Follow the guideline of good writing techniques; (remember ABC, be courteous, write naturally, use KISS principle, modern technology, include essentials, be consistent, use active voice, compose CLEAR communication)

To construct clear sentences and paragraph the following steps are to be considered….

Sentence should be short:

ü Meaning will be clear;

ü In complex sentences understanding may be difficult;

There are two ways to make it clear…

1. Limiting sentence content:

ü The content should not be more than one sentence;

ü Avoid long sentence, specially complex sentence;

ü We should use simple or compound sentence. If we use short sentence content will be limited.

2. Economizing a word:

ü Use concrete words;

ü Try to avoid phrase and should use a particular word which is more clear;

ü Avoid surplus word; (We should not use unnecessary word)

Proper emphasis/respect to every item:

Some items are important, some items are less important, some items are unimportant. We use less important or unimportant words to make the momentum.

Important items:

ü Subject/topic, introduction and conclusion is very important;

ü Concentrate more in the important item of a paragraph;

Less important items:

ü Optional to use;

Unnecessary/Unimportant item:

ü As it does not bear any importance, so it’s also optional;

Use of short sentence:

ü Understanding become easy;

ü Message becomes clear, because only one item is transmitted;

Avoid long sentences:

ü If necessary we can use it to make sentence clear;

ü Use additional word to complete the meaning;

ü Settle down one sentence as subordinates;

There are some sorts of errors may arise while constructing sentence, we should be conscious about overcoming those errors which are……

Unrelated ideas:

ü Using two or more ideas in one sentence may drift the focus;

ü We should avoid this;

Excessive details:

ü Description of less important ideas focused earlier make the problem;

ü We should use it in the bottom;

Illogical construction:

ü Using wrong grammatical procedure;

ü Using active and passive voice;

ü We should be aware about grammatical mistake, and avoid mix up the voices;

Minutes to the agenda of a meeting__

Agenda in a notice-

Arlington Mental Health Task Force

17 Dhanmondi R/A, Road No.-2,Dhaka-1205

Date: 28.02.2009

NOTICE

When: Thursday, 10 March 09, 10:00-12:00 a.m.

Where: Samarai Convention Center, Panthapath, Dhaka.

Special Instructions: Tentative agenda attached. Call in new agenda items. Bring last meeting notes. The public is invited!

For further details: Contact Nee Gotiator, Gotiator@battle.org. Committee Chair, Mana Consultants Inc. Ph. 777-7777.

Distribution: Committee and posted on Community Calendar.

All the members are requested to attend the meeting in time. Any member who cannot attend the meeting physically can appoint a proxy on his behalf.

By Order of the Board

Nee Gotiator

Secretary

AGENDA

1. Call to order--Nee Gotiator (10:00am)

2. Approval of minutes, agenda, and old business (action) (10:05am)

3. Role and function of a vision statement--Nee Gotiator (discussion) (10:15am)

4. Brainstorming on the vision statement for the plan—Will B. Boring (discussion) (10:30am)

5. Adoption of vision statement--Nee Gotiator (action) (11:45am)

6. Next meeting and adjourn (12:00pm)

Minutes of agenda-

Arlington Mental Health Task Force

17 Dhanmondi R/A, Road No.-2,Dhaka-1205

Date: 10.03.2009

MINUTES

Minutes of the board meeting of Arlington Mental Health Task Force held on Thursday, 10^th March,2009 at 10.00 am at the Smarai Convention Center.

Present:

Hard Atwork,

Firan Brimstone,

Makka Buck,

Ed U. Cator,

Doom N. Gloom,

Multe Kultural,

Will B. Boring,

Nee Gotiator,

Gyve U. Pills,

Ian Sight,

Nicen Tuff,

D. Schoech (staff)

1. Call to order and welcome- Nee Gotiator (chair) called the meeting to order at 10:10. Mayor Promptu dropped in to welcome members and stress the importance of their task.

2. Approval of previous minutes, setting of the agenda, old business- There was no old business. Previous meeting minutes and the agenda were distributed and approved by consensus.

3. Role and function of a vision statement (discussion)- Nee explained the structure and function of a vision statement and reviewed statements from other plans.

4. Brainstorming on the vision statement for the plan- Boring led the brainstorming session. All ideas were recorded for future use. Three vision statements emerged.

5. Adoption of vision statement (action)- Nee led the discussion of the proposed vision statements. Ian made a motion that the vision statement be “We envision a community and families that support infants, children, youth, young adults, middle aged, and the aged in Arlington to develop their maximum potential emotionally, intellectually, and socially.

We envision a community support system comprised of families, employers and neighborhoods that encourage self-help and mutual support.

We envision a mix of human service agencies ready to intervene if self-help measures, the family, and the community are not sufficient to solve the problems of citizens.” Multi seconded the motion. Major points of discussion concerned the role of prevention vs. treatment. Motion passed with 5 in favor, 1 against, and one abstention.

6. Next meeting & adjourn- Nee explained the next task of establishing guiding principles. The next meeting was scheduled for 17 Mar 09 at UTA. Since there were no other items for discussion, the meeting was adjourned at 12:00 a.m.

By Order of the Board

M.M. Leonard

Chairman

Nee Gotiator

Secretary

Economic Growth

2009-07-08T11:19:00.000-07:00

Economic growth

Economic growth is the increase in the amount of the goods and services produced by an economy over time[1] and is dependent on an increase in the creation of money. Growth is conventionally measured as the percent rate of increase in realgross domestic product, or real GDP. GDP is usually calculated in real terms, i.e. inflation-adjusted terms, in order to net out the effect of inflation on the price of the goods and services produced. In economics, "economic growth" or "economic growth theory" typically refers to growth of potential output, i.e., production at "full employment," which is caused by growth inaggregate demand or observed output.

As an area of study, economic growth is generally distinguished from economic development. The former focusses narrowly on quantitative increases in economic output (typically measured by Gross Domestic Product, GDP); the latter more generally on how economies go through qualitative transformations, especially in terms of developing sectors with higher value added, for example hi-tech manufacturing instead of natural resource extraction.

GDP per capita is not the same thing as earnings per worker since GDP measures only monetary transactions for all final goods and services in country without regard to who receives that money. For example, in the US from 1990 to 2006 the earnings (adjusted for inflation) of individual workers, in private industry and services, increased by less than 0.5% per year while GDP (adjusted for inflation) increased about 3.6% per year over the same period.[2]

[hide] [hide]

1 Short-term stabilization and long-term growth

2 Theory

3 Effects of growth

4 Implications of Global Warming

5 Prominent growth economists

6 See also

7 References

8 Further reading

9 External links
- 9.1 Articles and lectures
- 9.2 Data

[edit]Short-term stabilization and long-term growth

Economists draw a distinction between short-term economic stabilization and long-term economic growth. The topic of economic growth is primarily concerned with the long run.

The short-run variation of economic growth is termed the business cycle, and almost all economies experience periodical recessions. The cycle can be a misnomer as the fluctuations are not always regular. Explaining these fluctuations is one of the main focuses of macroeconomics. There are different schools of thought as to the causes of recessions but some consensus- see Keynesianism, Austrian Business Cycle Theory, Monetarism, New classical economics and New Keynesian economics. Oil shocks, war and harvest failure are obvious causes of recession. Short-run variation in growth has generally dampened in higher income countries since the early 1990s and this has been attributed, in part, to changes in macroeconomic management...

The long-run path of economic growth is one of the central questions of economics; in spite of the problems of measurement, an increase in GDP of a country is generally taken as an increase in the standard of living of its inhabitants. Over long periods of time, even small rates of annual growth can have large effects through compounding (see exponential growth). A growth rate of 2.5% per annum will lead to a doubling of GDP within 28 years, whilst a growth rate of 8% per annum (experienced by some Four Asian Tigers) will lead to a doubling of GDP within 9 years. This exponential characteristic can exacerbate differences across nations. For example, the difference in the annual growth from country A to country B will multiply up over the years. A growth rate of 5% seems similar to 3%, but over two decades, the first economy would have grown by 165%, the second only by 80%.

In the early 20th century, it became the policy of most nations to encourage growth of this kind. To do this required enacting policies, and being able to measure the results of those policies. This gave rise to the importance of econometrics, or the field of creating measurements for underlying conditions. Terms such as "unemployment rate", "Gross Domestic Product" and "rate of inflation" are part of the measuring of the changes in an economy.

In mainstream economics, the purpose of government policy is to encourage economic activity without encouraging the rise in the general level of prices (in other words, increase GDP without creating inflation). This combination is seen as, at the macro-scale (see macroeconomics) to be indicative of an increasing stock of capital. The argument runs that if more money is changing hands, but the prices of individual goods are relatively stable, then it is proof that there is more productive capacity, and therefore more capital, because it is capital that is allowing more to be made at a lower cost per unit. See Economies of scale, Inflation, Hyperinflation,Price, Supply and demand.

[edit]Theory

[edit]Origins of the concept

In 1377, the Arabian economic thinker Ibn Khaldun provided one of the earliest descriptions of economic growth in his famous Muqaddimah (known as Prolegomena in the Western world):

"When civilization [population] increases, the available labor again increases. In turn, luxury again increases in correspondence with the increasing profit, and the customs and needs of luxury increase. Crafts are created to obtain luxury products. The value realized from them increases, and, as a result, profits are again multiplied in the town. Production there is thriving even more than before. And so it goes with the second and third increase. All the additional labor serves luxury and wealth, in contrast to the original labor that served the necessity of life."[3]

In the early modern period, some people in Western European nations developed the idea that economies could "grow", that is, produce a greater economic surplus which could be expended on something other than mere subsistence. This surplus could then be used for consumption, warfare, or civic and religious projects. The previous view was that only increasing either population or tax rates could generate more surplus money for the Crown or country.

Now it is generally recognized that economic growth also corresponds to a process of continual rapid replacement and reorganization of human activities facilitated by investment motivated to maximize returns. This exponential evolution of our self-organized life-support and cultural systems is remarkably creative and flexible, but highly unpredictable in many ways. As there are difficulties in modeling complex self-organizing systems, various efforts to model the long term evolution of economies have produced mixed results.

During much of the "Mercantilist" period, growth was seen as involving an increase in the total amount of specie, that is circulating medium such as silver and gold, under the control of the state. This "Bullionist" theory led to policies to force trade through a particular state, the acquisition of colonies to supply cheaper raw materials which could then be manufactured and sold.

Later, such trade policies were justified instead simply in terms of promoting domestic trade and industry. The post-Bullionist insight that it was the increasing capability of manufacturing which led to policies in the 1700s to encourage manufacturing in itself, and the formula of importing raw materials and exporting finished goods. Under this system high tariffs were erected to allow manufacturers to establish "factories". Local markets would then pay the fixed costs of capital growth, and then allow them to export abroad, undercutting the prices of manufactured goods elsewhere. Once competition from abroad was removed, prices could then be increased to recoup the costs of establishing the business.

Under this theory of growth, one policy attempted to foster growth was to grant monopolies, which would give an incentive for an individual to exploit a market or resource, confident that he would make all of the profits when all other extra-national competitors were driven out of business. The "Dutch East India company" and the "British East India company" were examples of such state-granted trade monopolies.

In this period the view was that growth was gained through "advantageous" trade in which specie would flow in to the country, but to trade with other nations on equal terms was disadvantageous. It should be stressed that Mercantilism was not simply a matter of restricting trade. Within a country, it often meant breaking down trade barriers, building new roads, and abolishing local toll booths, all of which expanded markets. This corresponded to the centralization of power in the hands of the Crown (or "Absolutism"). This process helped produce the modern nation-state in Western Europe.

Internationally, Mercantilism led to a contradiction: growth was gained through trade, but to trade with other nations on equal terms was disadvantageous.

[edit]Classical growth theory

The modern conception of economic growth began with the critique of Mercantilism, especially by the physiocrats and with the Scottish Enlightenment thinkers such as David Hume and Adam Smith, and the foundation of the discipline of modern political economy. The theory of the physiocrats was that productive capacity, itself, allowed for growth, and the improving and increasing capital to allow that capacity was "the wealth of nations". Whereas they stressed the importance of agriculture and saw urban industry as "sterile", Smith extended the notion that manufacturing was central to the entire economy.

David Ricardo argued that trade was a benefit to a country, because if one could buy a good more cheaply from abroad, it meant that there was more profitable work to be done here. This theory of "comparative advantage" would be the central basis for arguments in favor of free trade as an essential component of growth.

Income per capita was essentially flat until the industrial revolution. This period of time is called the Malthusian period, since it was governed by the principles explained by Thomas Malthus in his "Essay on the Principle of Population." In essence, Malthus said that any growth in the economy would translate into a growth in population. Thus, although aggregate income could increase, income per capita was bound to stay roughly constant. The mainstream theory of economic growth states that with the industrial revolution and advancements in medicine, life expectation increased, infant mortality decreased, and the payoff to receiving an education was higher. Thus, parents began to place more value on the quality of their children and not on the quantity. This led to a drop in the fertility rates of most industrialized nations. This is known as the breakdown of the Malthusian regime. With income increasing faster than population growth, industrialized economies substantially increased their incomes per capita in the next centuries.

[edit]Creative destruction and economic growth

Main article: Creative destruction

Many economists view entrepreneurship as having a major influence on a society's rate of technological progress and thus economic growth.[4] Joseph Schumpeterwas a key figure in understanding the influence of entrepreneurs on technological progress.[4] In Schumpeter's Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, published in 1942, an entrepreneur is a person who is willing and able to convert a new idea or invention into a successful innovation. Entrepreneurship forces "creative destruction" across markets and industries, simultaneously creating new products and business models. In this way, creative destruction is largely responsible for the dynamism of industries and long-run economic growth. Former Federal Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan has described the influence of creative destruction on economic growth as follows: "Capitalism expands wealth primarily through creative destruction—the process by which the cash flow from obsolescent, low-return capital is invested in high-return, cutting-edge technologies."[5]

[edit]The neo-classical growth model

Main article: Exogenous growth model

The notion of growth as increased stocks of capital goods (means of production) was codified as the Solow-Swan Growth Model, which involved a series of equations which showed the relationship between labor-time, capital goods, output, and investment. According to this view, the role of technological change became crucial, even more important than the accumulation of capital. This model, developed by Robert Solow [6] and Trevor Swan [7] in the 1950s, was the first attempt to model long-run growth analytically. This model assumes that countries use their resources efficiently and that there are diminishing returns to capital and labor increases. From these two premises, the neo-classical model makes three important predictions. First, increasing capital relative to labor creates economic growth, since people can be more productive given more capital. Second, poor countries with less capital per person will grow faster because each investment in capital will produce a higher return than rich countries with ample capital. Third, because of diminishing returns to capital, economies will eventually reach a point at which no new increase in capital will create economic growth. This point is called a "steady state".

The model also notes that countries can overcome this steady state and continue growing by inventing new technology. In the long run, output per capita depends on the rate of saving, but the rate of output growth should be equal for any saving rate. In this model, the process by which countries continue growing despite the diminishing returns is "exogenous" and represents the creation of new technology that allows production with fewer resources. Technology improves, the steady state level of capital increases, and the country invests and grows. The data does not support some of this model's predictions, in particular, that all countries grow at the same rate in the long run, or that poorer countries should grow faster until they reach their steady state. Also, the data suggests the world has slowly increased its rate of growth.[8]

However modern economic research shows that this model of economic growth is not supported by the evidence. Calculations made by Solow claimed that the majority of economic growth was due to technological progress rather than inputs of capital and labour. Recent economic research has, however, found the calculations made to support this claim to be invalid as they do not take into account changes in both investment and labour inputs.

Dale Jorgenson, of Harvard University, President of the American Economic Association in 2000, concludes that: ‘Griliches and I showed that changes in the quality of capital and labor inputs and the quality of investment goods explained most of the Solow residual. We estimated that capital and labor inputs accounted for 85 percent of growth during the period 1945–1965, while only 15 percent could be attributed to productivity growth… This has precipitated the sudden obsolescence of earlier productivity research employing the conventions of Kuznets and Solow.’[9]

John Ross has analysed the long term correlation between the level of investment in the economy, rising from 5-7% of GDP at the time of the Industrial Revolution in England, to 25% of GDP in the post-war German ‘economic miracle’, to over 35% of GDP in the world’s most rapidly growing contemporary economies of India and China.[10]

Taking the G7 economies and the largest non-G7 economies Jorgenson and Vu conclude in considering: ‘the growth of world output between input growth and productivity… input growth greatly predominated… Productivity growth accounted for only one-fifth of the total during 1989-1995, while input growth accounted for almost four-fifths. Similarly, input growth accounted for more than 70 percent of growth after 1995, while productivity accounted for less than 30 percent.’

Regarding differences in output per capita Jorgenson and Vu conclude: ‘differences in per capita output levels are primarily explained by differences in per capital input, rather than variations in productivity.’[11]

[edit]Development economics

Main article: development economics

The latter half of the 20th century, with its global economy of a few very wealthy nations and many very poor nations, led to the study of how the transition from subsistence and resource-based economies to production and consumption based-economies occurred. This led to the field of development economics, including the work of Nobel laureates Amartya Sen and Joseph Stiglitz.However this model of economic development does not meet the demands of subaltern populations and has been severely criticized by later theorists. PROTAP

[edit]New growth theory

Main article: Endogenous growth theory

Growth theory advanced again with the theories of economist Paul Romer in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Other important new growth theorists include Robert E. Lucas and Robert J. Barro.

Unsatisfied with Solow's explanation, economists worked to "endogenize" technology in the 1980s. They developed the endogenous growth theory that includes a mathematical explanation of technological advancement.[12][13] This model also incorporated a new concept of human capital, the skills and knowledge that make workers productive. Unlike physical capital, human capital has increasing rates of return. Therefore, overall there are constant returns to capital, and economies never reach a steady state. Growth does not slow as capital accumulates, but the rate of growth depends on the types of capital a country invests in. Research done in this area has focused on what increases human capital (e.g. education) or technological change (e.g. innovation).[8] Recent empirical analyses suggest that differences in cognitive skills, related to schooling and other factors, can largely explain variations in growth rates across countries.[14]

[edit]Other theories

Theories of economic growth, the mechanisms that let it take place and its main determinants abound. One popular theory in the 70's for example was that of the "Big Push" which suggested that countries needed to jump from one stage of development to another through a virtuous cycle in which large investments in infrastructure and education coupled to private investment would move the economy to a more productive stage, breaking free from economic paradigms appropriate to a lower productivity stage. [15]

Analysis of recent economies' success shows a close correlation between growth and climate. It is possible that there is absolutely no actual mechanism between the two, and the relation may be spurious. In early human history, economic as well as cultural development was concentrated in warmer parts of the world, like Egypt.

According to Acemoglu, Johnson and Robinson, the positive correlation between high income and cold climate is a by-product of history. Former colonies have inherited corrupt governments and geo-political boundaries (set by the colonizers) that are not properly placed regarding the geographical locations of different ethnic groups; this creates internal disputes and conflicts. Also, these authors contend that the egalitarian societies that emerged in colonies without solid native populations, and which could be exploited by individual farmers led to better property rights and incentives for long-term investment than those where native population was large, and together with the tropical climate, colonizers were led to plunder and ruin, and to create exploitative institutions, a situation which did not foster growth or private property rights. Colonies in temperate climate zones as Australia and USA did not inherit exploitative governments since Europeans were able to inhabit these territories and set up governments that mirrored those in Europe. It is important to note that Sachs, among others, do not believe this to be the case.

[edit]Effects of growth

Economic growth has undeniable effects on the living conditions of the peoples of the earth. However, whether these effects are on balance positive or negative is currently open to debate.

[edit]Positive effects

Economist Xavier Sala-i-Martin argues that global income inequality is diminishing,[16] and the World Bank argues that the rapid reduction in global poverty is in large part due to economic growth [17] The decline in poverty has been the slowest where growth performance has been the worst (ie. in Africa).[18]

Happiness increases with a higher GDP/capita, at least up to a level of $15,000 per person.[19]

Many earlier predictions of resource depletion, such as Thomas Malthus (1798) predictions about approaching famines in Europe, [4] The Population Bomb (1968),[5] [6] [7] Limits to Growth (1972), [8] [9] [10] and the Simon-Ehrlich wager (1980) [11] have proven false, one reason being that advancements in technology and science have continually allowed previously unavailable resources to be utilized more economically. [12] The book The Improving State of the Worldargues that the state of humanity is rapidly improving.

Those more optimistic about the environmental impacts of growth believe that, although localized environmental effects may occur, large scale ecological effects are minor. The argument as stated by economists such as Julian Lincoln Simon states that if these global-scale ecological effects exist, human ingenuity will find ways of adapting to them.[citation needed]

Economists theorize that economies are driven by new technology and ongoing improvements in efficiency — for instance, we have faster computers today than a year ago, but not necessarily computers requiring more natural resources to build. Also, physical limits may be very large if considering all the minerals in the planet Earth or all possible resources from space colonization, such as solar power satellites, asteroid mining, or a Dyson sphere. The book Mining the Sky: Untold Riches from the Asteroids, Comets, and Planets is one example of such arguments. However, depletion and declining production from old resources can sometimes occur before new resources are ready to replace them. This is, in part, the logical basis of the Peak Oil theory. Although individual oil wells and mines for other nonrenewable resources are often depleted, the availability of these resources has generally risen and their prices have dropped over the long-run.

[edit]Negative effects

Five major critical arguments raised against economic growth include:[20]

Growth has negative effects on the quality of life such as crime, prisons, or pollution.[dubious – discuss] See Uneconomic growth.

Many aspects of economic growth that affect the quality of life, such as the environment are not traded or accounted in the market. See Externality.

Growth encourages the creation of artificial needs: Industry cause consumers to develop new tastes, and preferences for growth to occur. Consequently, "wants are created, and consumers have become the servants, instead of the masters, of the economy."[20] See Consumerism.

Resources: The 2007 United Nations GEO-4 report warns that we are living far beyond our means. The human population is now larger and that the amount of resources it consumes takes up a lot of those resources available. Humanity’s environmental demand is purported to be 21.9 hectares per person while the Earth’s biological capacity is purported to be 15.7 ha/person.[21] This report supports the basic arguments and observations made by Thomas Malthus in the early 1800s, that is, economic growth depletes non-renewable resources rapidly.[22] See Ecological footprint.

Distribution of income: The gap between the poorest and richest countries in the world has been growing.[23]. Although mean and median wealth has increased globally, it adds to the inequality of wealth. See Economic inequality.

Some critics argue that a narrow view of economic growth, combined with globalization, is creating a scenario where we could see a systemic collapse of our planet's natural resources.[24] Other critics draw on archaeology to cite examples of cultures they claim have disappeared because they grew beyond the ability of their ecosystems to support them.[25] Concerns about possible negative effects of growth on the environment and society led some to advocate lower levels of growth, from which comes the ideas of uneconomic growth and de-growth, and Green parties which argue that economies are part of a global society and a global ecology and cannot outstrip their natural growth without damaging them.

The Austrian School argues that the concept of "growth" or the creation and acquisition of more goods and services is dependent upon the relative desires of the individual. Someone may prefer having more leisure time to acquiring more goods and services, but this fulfillment of desires would have a negative effect on GDP increase. Also, they claim that the notion of growth implies the need for a "central planner" within an economy. To Austrian economists, such an ideal is antithetical to the concept of a free market economy, which best satisfies the wants of consumers. As such, Austrian economists believe that the individual should determine how much "growth" s/he desires.[26]

Canadian scientist, David Suzuki stated in the 1990s that ecologies can only sustain typically about 1.5-3% new growth per year, and thus any requirement for greater returns from agriculture or forestry will necessarily cannibalize the natural capital of soil or forest.[citation needed] Some think this argument can be applied even to more developed economies.[citation needed]

[edit]Growth 'to a point'

The two theories can be reconciled if it is recognised that growth improves the quality of life to a point, after which it doesn't improve the quality of life, but rather obstructs sustainable living.[27] Historically, sustained growth has reached its limits (and turned to catastrophic decline) when perturbations to the environmental system last long enough to destabilise the bases of a culture.[27]

[edit]Implications of Global Warming

see Economics of global warming

Up to the present there are close correlations of economic growth with carbon dioxide emissions across nations, although considerable divergence in carbon intensity (carbon emissions per GDP). [28]. The Stern Review notes that "under business as usual, global emissions will be sufficient to propel greenhouse-gas concentrations to over 550ppm CO2e by 2050 and over 650-700ppm by the end of this century is robust to a wide range of changes in model assumptions". This is in contrast with scientist consensus that planetary ecosystem functioning without incurring dangerous risks requires stabilization at 450-550ppm. [29].

As a consequence, growth oriented environmental economists propose massive government intervention into switching sources of energy production, favouring wind, solar, hydroelectric and nuclear. This would largely confine use of fossil fuels to either domestic cooking needs (such as for kerosene burners) or where carbon capture and storage technology can be cost-effective and reliable. ([30]). The Stern Review, published by the United Kingdom Government in 2006, concluded that an investment of 1% of GDP per annum would be sufficient to avoid the worst effects of climate change, and that failure to do so could risk global GDP being 20% lower than it otherwise might be. Because carbon capture and storage is as yet widely unproven, and its long term effectiveness (such as in containing carbon dioxide 'leaks') unknown, and because of current costs of alternative fuels these policy responses largely rest on faith on technological change.

On the other hand, Nigel Lawson claimed that people in a hundred years' time would be "seven times as well off as we are today", therefore it is not reasonable to impose sacrifices on the "much poorer present generation".[31]

2nd Year 1st Sem. Study

Configuration of Personal Computer

Matrix Application

Business Communication Assignment

Economic Growth

Economic growth

Contents

[edit]Short-term stabilization and long-term growth

[edit]Theory

[edit]Origins of the concept

[edit]Classical growth theory

[edit]Creative destruction and economic growth

[edit]The neo-classical growth model

[edit]Development economics

[edit]New growth theory

[edit]Other theories

[edit]Effects of growth

[edit]Positive effects

[edit]Negative effects

[edit]Growth 'to a point'

[edit]Implications of Global Warming